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  Will cultural differences between nations remain a major travel incentive ?

Dr Ronald G. PARRIS - Director, Ralph Bunche Institute of International Studies, William Patterson University,Wayne, New-Jersey, USA

 

1. The question of cultural differences as a major travel incentive in the future will be considered in the context of the following propositions in the Conference Background Document, “Tourism and culture : New paradigms for sustainable development ” :

a) that tourists are motivated to travel to other countries mainly because of national cultural differences from which they could derive cultural enrichment, or as Professor Keller puts it “to learn about other countries, with their different customs and ways of doing things ;”

b) that globalisation alters the relationship between tourism and culture through increasing integration and homogenization of expectations and experiences, resulting in a global culture or at least in a “global leisure time culture” of shared world-wide standards of quality of service ;

c) that at the same time, globalisation generates a counter cultural movement to protect and safeguard cultural identity.

2. In short, globalisation is seen as being attended by cultural assimilation, cultural pluralism and cultural self-determination. Tourism is said to benefit from these processes, though it is more particularly animated by cultural differences or diversity.

THEORETICAL PRE-SUPPOSITIONS

Tourism and cultural interaction :

3. International tourism is understood as a system of relationships and processes, practices and networks of action, involving peoples and institutions of different countries and cultures for the purpose of organizing international travel and overnight accommodation and supplying and consuming leisure activities in various countries of destination.

4. The concept of interaction is fundamental to understanding this phenomenon. Such interaction is at the same time intersocietal, intercultural and intersectoral. The starting point therefore is the system of relationships or social interaction in which such cultural contact occur and is organized. In some usages, social and cultural factors are co-joined into a single concept of socio-cultural interaction, which reflects the difficulty of maintaining the distinction empirically.

5. Some conceptual clarity, however, can be derived from the traditional social science interaction paradigm of an hypothetical actor facing conditions in a situation in which he (used generically) is motivated to define objectives and goals (rational, irrational, non-rational or expressive) and means to achieve them. In pursuing his interests and goals, culture provides some guidance as it does also inform the unfolding of social interaction with other actors.

6. It is in this sense that I understand the role of culture in tourism as doubly manifested in stimulating or motivating individuals to travel (Keller’s “everyday culture” of the tourist) as well as in its impact on host-guest interaction. Tourism is conceived economically as an “origin-linkage-destination” world wide system (Pearce, 1989) and culturally as a “cultural interaction linkage system” or a tourism culture interface of “backward” and “forward” linkages, the former in the sending country, the latter in the country of destination. The incentive or motivation to travel could be understood within the context of these linkages.

7. The tourism-culture interface starts with the construction of cultural images that permeate the publicity and promotion of suppliers, tourist operators, advertising agencies and representatives of national and regional tourist bureaus. These “idealized models” or created “dreams” enter the decision-making situation of prospective tourists, and in interaction with their own “culturally specific” values, are carried to the chosen destinations to be or not to be realized.

CULTURE

8. Culture is indicated along two major axes: first as “a social paradigm of dominant beliefs, values, traditions, common-sense knowledge and prescriptions (norms and sanctions) that guide and legitimate decision choices, social practices and human interaction;” second, as the “tangible manifestations of a society’s patrimony, put on display as tourist attractions.” Professor Keller draws attention to the role of culture in both senses of its physical presence and traditional values, “which cannot be directly exploited.” In other words, culture exists as objects that can be bought and sold on the market as commodities; but there is also culture that is sacred and is not for sale.

9. Cultural tourism, if defined narrowly as the production, organization and consumption of the tangible manifestations of culture (e.g. museums, historical sites, monuments and so on) does not exhaust the role of culture in social interaction between tourists and locals. The latter is intimately involved with the “living culture” or everyday ways of life of a society. In tourism, cultural interaction in both senses, however, elicit both positive and negative evaluations.

10. One perspective, for example, is that there should be a limit to which a society is exposed to the “tourist gaze,” whether or not this generates income. The logic is that the most vulnerable and private aspects of culture must remain so, rather than making public all its traditions and “turning myths into T-shirts” (Polly Pattullo, 1996). At the same time, its is recognized that tourism, especially cultural tourism can play a positive role in helping to or recreate the historical past, indigenous art forms and traditions (e.g. restoration of the Seville Arawak settlement and Heritage Park in Jamaica; restoration of plantation houses as tourist attractions; native American and African ceremonies ; stimulation of folk art, crafts and popular music). The option therefore is for a proper balance between displaying culture as attractions mainly for tourists and the “backstage” cultural traditions and practices for the enjoyment of the local population, but in which appreciative tourists can also participate. All elements of culture are relevant in understanding how tourists negotiate and give meaning to the physical and social differences they experience in host countries, which could structure their further motivation to travel.

TOURISM AS “DREAM FACTORY” 

11. In the tourism cultural interface, an important issue is the degree to which idealized cultural images, “dreams” or “markers” of destination countries promoted to stimulate demand are positively correlated with local cultural values and traditions. The Conference Background Document suggests that from a marketing perspective the difference is not significant, since the “dreams” themselves are embedded or constructed from much of the cultural raw material of production. As such, culture could be treated as any product or commodity to be realized in its consumption.

12. A somewhat more differentiated view is that tourism is not simply an export commodity, but is embedded in social interaction (both face-to-face and secondary), whose dimensions are cultural, political as well as economic. The “tourist product” is seen as not merely a constructed commodity or assembled package tour (of dreams) delimited in content and boundaries, but as being in varying degrees a fluid process of experiences that may transcend the pre-determined parameters of tourist experiences Cultural tourism is not merely visits to cultural sites and historical routes, but encompasses a wider range of social settings in which tourist-host interaction takes place that is not always tangible and measurable (Marie-Francoise L’Enfant, 1980). 

13. In any event, the consistency or fit between created “dreams” and local cultural realities remains an empirical question in each case. For some observers, the fit is uneasy. The Caribbean islands, for example, are typically idealized for tourists as
“a little bit of paradise” or “far beyond the imagination.” Islanders are encouraged and expected to satisfy images of the earthly paradise – “stereotyped images of happy, carefree, fun-loving men and women, colorful in behaviour whose life is one of daytime indolence beneath the palms and a nighttime of pleasure through music, dance and sex” (Pattullo, 1996).

These dreams or stereotyped images, however useful as marketing tools for certain types of tourism are viewed as contradicting the complexities of Caribbean life, and history - the “cultural cross-roads” or meeting ground of native Americans, Europeans, Africans, East Asians and North Americans, occasioned by European exploration, colonization, slavery , indentured labour and more recent efforts of nation-building and regional integration. An integrated or more balanced marketing model that promotes not only the natural resources of the sun and sea, but also the region’s ecology, history and cultural patrimony is consistent with historical and cultural bases of the region.

14. The design and promotion of narrow idealized images may generate tourist earnings, but could also produce cultural alienation, ambivalence or even a “touristic cultural identity” among the local population as they are urged to respond to these images (“Be friendly to tourists;” “Smile. You are a walking tourist attraction”). There is also wish fulfillment by the locals as they admire the life style and affluence that tourists seem to represent and they too have their “dreams” of opportunities for a better life in the countries from which the tourists come.

PROCESS OF CULTURAL ADAPTATION

15. An ongoing process of social and cultural adaptation characterizes tourism. Tourists adapt in vary degrees to new cultural experiences, probably reshaping the idealized cultural models acquired before arrival. The host society adapts to the presence and their imported cultural models, sometimes extending the range of opportunities for their exposure to and experience of more authentic manifestations of local culture. What is the nature of the outcome in terms of the respect for cultural diversity that could enhance the role of cultural differences as a future travel incentive ? Or has globalisation so altered national cultures in the direction of an assimilated homogenized global culture that could be a disincentive for travel ? Are the outcomes so starkly dichotomized ? These are the questions to which I shall return.

16. Here I want to support the theory that on the side of the behaviour of the tourist, the nature of the adaptation may depend on social characteristics of age, ethnicity, social class and communication skills, the “everyday” or specific culture he brings to the situation , the “service culture” and “traditional culture” encountered in the interaction, the conditions of the interaction, such as the type and quality of accommodation and other services, the nature of social interaction with the local population and the type of tourism in which he participates (V. Smith, 1977). It is generally accepted that certain types of tourism, such as “:mass tourism,” “all-inclusives,” “cruise tourism” may require heavier demands for infrastructural support on the host country (perhaps less so for “all-inclusives) and a standardization of services that tend to limit or trivialize the interaction between tourist and locals. In considering “tolerable” levels of cultural adaptation and its implications for travel motivation, the concept of the “tipping point” along a continuum of cultural differences and cultural homogeneity may be a more useful guide than an either-or dichotomous cultural differentiation for assessing whether or not the tourist may be motivated to return. In the context of tourism planning, the cultural-interaction tipping point, while not readily accessible, and the factors that affect it should be taken into account in considering travel motivation or incentives in the context of a presumed homogenized global culture produced by globalisation.

17. It is necessary to point out that tourism planning is faced not simply with managing travel motivation and incentives of the tourists, but also the nature of the adaptation of the local population to tourism. Adoption of a touristic life style, referred to above, represents for the local population a far point of acculturation on the adaptation cultural continuum. Such a life style may even be associated with deviant behaviour related to crime, visitor harassment, drugs, prostitution in order to sustain it. The touristic life style represents a more general change in world view, attended by a loss of cultural identity. Such consequences in turn may well feed negatively into tourist motivation to return. A clear warning is sounded not to ignore the importance of the protection and preservation of cultural identity :
“If we ignore our culture... one morning we will wake up and there and there will be no more visitors. Visitors will simply have ceased to to find us interesting, since we would have become just like them and they will opt to get their suntans somewhere closer to home where the airfares and meals are cheaper”(Pattullo, 1996).

A strong cultural identity is therefore considered as being of prime importance as a travel incentive.

TRAVEL MOTIVATION

18. In considering the role of cultural differences or cultural homogeneity in travel motivation, we return to our hypothetical actor satisfying needs and pursuing goals, in a situation of interaction with other actors and conditions. To satisfy his needs and pursue his goals, the actor is oriented to the situation through various modes of motivation. In this respect, motivation is distinguished from goals or purpose and has both rational and cathexive features. With respect to the actor’s motivation to travel, an early study (Crompton, 1979) identifies a break from routine as the basic travel motivation, but also allows for the role of other socio-psychological motives in destination preference, such as self exploration and assessment, relaxation, prestige and enhancement of family solidarity.

19. For the traveller’s break from routine, the characteristics of the destination should ideally be markedly different from those of the country of origin, in order to pre-empt travel disincentive. Surveys of American and German tourists, for example, rank change of place as the key factor in travelling abroad. Regional and local differences also play a role in domestic tourism as can be seen in the strong flow of American tourists to cities like New York, Miami, San Francisco and the popularity of such destinations as Disney World, Las Vegas, Hollywood, Vail and so on.

20. The westernization of such international business centers as Shangai, for example, with its embracing of an American urban model, American fast foods and even the consideration of plans to erect replicas of Times Square and Central Park in New York may indeed be a travel disincentive for a culturally oriented tourist and not so much for the business representative. Yet, it should be recognized that such outward manifestations of elements of Westernization do not necessarily undermine the strength of Chinese indigenous culture which could yet be a source of travel motivation for the discerning tourist seeking education and a local cultural experience. Similarly, the proliferation of McDonald fast food restaurants in France does not necessarily undermine basic French cultural values and traditions, though there is some obvious impact on food tastes, especially among the youth. In the contact between cultures, some measure of adaptation or acculturation occurs, without necessarily leading to an extreme point of assimilation or cultural levelling , that is the degradation or wiping out of cultural differences. Acculturation may even attract those tourists who prefer to see a bit of their own culture in the countries of destination. The presence of a McDonalds fast food restaurant for an American and the availability of a British style pub and fish and chips may be in some ways a culturally reassuring experience. This suggests the relevance of assessing tourist motivation in terms of the level of self-reliance and innovation.

21. A background set of factors in the relationship between travel motivation and national cultural differences has to do with the historical, political and economic relationships between sending and receiving countries. Those relationships, for example, that have been shaped by colonialism help explain travel preferences of citizens of some European powers for their former colonies (e.g. British, French, Spanish, U.S.A.), where certain cultural understandings and linguistic competencies are shared. For example, a large majority of tourist arrivals and investors in the revived industry of Cuba have been of Hispanic origin. In addition to imperial ties, geography (and cost) may also play a role in travel decisions as in the case of the U.S.A with respect to travel for example to the Bahamas, Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and the strong growth of cruise tourism between the United States and the Caribbean as well as in the current heavy direct investment of the U.S. in the hotel sector of the latter two islands.