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  Tourism development in remote, quasi-natural regions : is eco-tourism sustainable ?

Erlet CATER - Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Reading, United Kingdom

 

Introduction

Almost two thirds of the population in middle income countries, and over three quarters of the population in high income countries is classified as being 'urban', that is living in metropolitan areas with populations of over one million (World Bank, 1999). The Internet, a global network of electronically linked computers, has more than doubled in size each year during the last decade (Sampat, 1999). By July 1999, over 56 million host computers were linked to the Internet.

As each host computer will often represent more than one user, it is probable that well over 100 million people are now connected in this way around the world (Network Wizards, 1999).

Estimates suggest that eight per cent of humanity will be online by 2001 (Sampat, 1999).

Why begin an examination of the sustainability of ecotourism to remote, quasi-natural, regions with technological indicators ? It is because these facts have vital repercussions for sustainable outcomes of ecotourism for two major reasons. First, the incremental pressures of urban living mean that there is an ever increasing demand for touristic experiences which provide an antidote to high-tech living. Consider, for example, an article which appeared in the New Straits Times in February 1997 where a Malaysian describes a trek in the Nepalese Himalaya.

This is notable from two counts, on the one hand because just ten years previous such regional participation would have been negligible, if not non-existent, on the other because it reveals the escapist motivations behind such a trip. Kok Yew Hoe declares '...if I had this enchanting view to mesmerise me every day, I would never again suffer from stress' and that the mountain air is 'a welcome change from the noxious fumes of the streets of Kuala Lumpur' (Kok, 1997).

The second reason, considering technological change, is that hitherto remote, unspoiled locations are being increasingly drawn into the locus of international tourism. It is now possible to book visits to some of the world's last remaining natural areas on the Internet, for example to Taman Negara (National Park) in Malaysia.

Access to remote locations, previously confined to the physically fit, is now possible via short helicopter or plane trips, for example it is possible to land on the Tasman glacier on South Island, New Zealand.

Tourists can now, quite literally, reach new depths and view marine life in remote areas without even getting wet. The Underwater Observatory in Milford Sound, New Zealand, the semi-submersible Nessee in Mauritius, or the glass-hulled Seaprobe Atlantis in Kyle of Lochalsh, Scotland, are all examples of facilities which enable the observation of marine ecosystems previously confined to those who were scubaqualified.

Subtainable ecotourism in theory

Varying interpretations of ecotourism range from ecocentric to humancentric, from deep to shallow green, from active to passive and from hard to soft (Weaver, 1998; Fennell, 1999). Whilst purists would confine a definition of ecotourism to the deep green, ecocentric, end of the spectrum, more pragmatic experts suggest that there is a continuum and that ecotourists are not an homogenous group.

It is essential, therefore, that ecotourism is viewed in the context of an increasingly interconnected and speeded up world, but, as will be seen presently, these forces of globalisation are not the only contexts that will dictate its prospective sustainability, nor the contribution that it can make towards sustainable development in general. An examination of the sustainability of ecotourism inevitably reveals a marked distinction between how ecotourism should be interpreted, in theory, and how it is most frequently interpreted, in practice.

It is not a foregone conclusion that hard ecotourism is any more sustainable than soft ecotourism. Each case needs to be examined on its own merits rather than attempting a heavy-handed allocation to broad categories of any crude, all-embracing definition. To be sustainable, it is suggested that ecotourism should display the qualities of socio-cultural responsibility; consumer satisfaction ; economic viability; and environmental integrity. If ecotourism embodies these principles, symbiotic relationships between the varying interests should follow; with environmental protection resulting both from and in enhanced living standards for local populations, continued profits for the tourism industry, sustained visitor attraction, and revenue for conservation.

Several writers have identified a spectrum of expectations, behaviour, and consequent impacts. Lindberg (1991), for example, suggests a fourfold typology, ranging from hard-core, specialist groups undertaking scientific observation, through dedicated and mainstream, to casual nature tourists whose experience is incorporated into tour itineries.

It should be a theoretically non-destructive operationalisation of the 'use it or lose it' philosophy; simultaneously making conservation pay and paying for conservation. So much for the theory, but what about the practice ?

Sustainable ecotourism in practice
The gap between theory and practice

The potential benefits of ecotourism are widely documented, but despite various guidelines, such as those of The Ecotourism Society (Lindberg and Hawkins, 1993; Lindberg et al, 1998), there is a considerable gap between theory and practice.

The disappointing performance of ecotourism to date in achieving several of its goals, such as increased local involvement, indicates the need to identify not only the nature of this gap, but also its cause. One cause is the failure to recognise the wider context within which ecotourism is cast as a process and as a principle.

The wider context

There are very important two-way relationships, operating at various scale levels, with the positive, spread, effects, of ecotourism ideally diffusing through the hierarchy. The spread effects from ecotourism include raising environmental awareness and disseminating an understanding of the coincidence of good environmental practice with advantages to business. Simultaneously, however, there are significant backwash, or negative, effects which hinge around the fact that other, often competing, economic activities, which impinge on the natural environment, are frequently prejudicial to the success, if not the very existence, of ecotourism (Fig 2).

There are various levels to consider. First, it is imperative that ecotourism is viewed in the context of nature tourism as a whole, as the activities of unprincipled nature tour operators may compromise genuine ecotourism. 

Such environmental opportunists unjustifiably, and misleadingly, hijack the prefix 'eco' to confer an image of respectability to their operations, for example the shark-cage diving activities at Gansbaii, South Africa. Such businesses may be ecologically based, but not ecologically sound. Conscientious ecotourism operators may thus find their efforts constantly thwarted by the unsustainable activities of other 'nature' tour operators. An example is the kayaking operations of SeaCanoe, which began in the tidal sea caves of Phang Nga Bay, Thailand, in 1989.

The company has won a number of awards for its low environmental impact/high local benefits cave kayaking experiences in southeast Asia. In Thailand, however, the very success of SeaCanoe in an unregulated scenario inevitably spawned unscrupulous imitators. Cave visitation has been taken into four figures a day, with dozens of kayaks waiting in line to beat the tide. Illegal extortion of tourist entry fees to the caves also occurs. Inevitably the caves have become degraded by these high volume, environmentally unaware entries (Gray, 1998a ; 1998b). The second contextual level is that of ecotourism with respect to other tourism market segments which are dependent upon, and consequently impact on, the natural environment. There is, for example, the dilemma that foreign and domestic tourists often have markedly different, incompatible, agenda. This is particularly evident where cross-cultural differences are great. In China, domestic tourists favour artificial site enhancement compared with preservation in a pristine state. At Tiger Leaping Gorge, Yunnan Province, the carving of a new road along the side of this deep gorge on the Yangtse, together with the construction of 500 concrete steps down to the river to facilitate visitation by large numbers of domestic tourists, have clearly reduced the attraction of the site to foreign ecotourists.

Third, with regard to the overall picture of sustainability, it is vital to consider the interactions that occur with all other forms of economic activity. As Butler (1998 : 34) asserts 'tourism is part of the global system and cannot be tackled in isolation, spatially, economically or temporally'. It is vital that a move is made beyond a tourism-centric view, as it is 'inappropriate to discuss sustainable tourism any more than one might discuss any other single activity.....we cannot hope to achieve sustainability in one sector alone, when each is linked to and dependent upon the others' (Butler 1998:28). 

The frequently unsustainable activities of other economic sectors may prejudice the sustainability of ecotourism. The interplay with forest management, for example, is clear. Destructive logging practices not only destroy distinctive ecosystems, often resulting in a loss of biodiversity, but also they simultaneously destroy the potential resource base for ecotourism. The resulting increased runoff from the land and consequent siltation of coastal waters, also have serious repercussions for marine life and, in turn, for marine ecotourism. Finally, at the global level, the forces of globalisation have already been mentioned, but global environmental forces are also at play. Consider, for example, the implications of global climatic change for coral bleaching and consequent destruction of a significant marine ecotourism resource. It can be seen, therefore, that ecotourism cannot be examined in isolation, and that a combination of a large number of factors will dictate its sustainability. These factors include economic, sociocultural, political, ecological, institutional and technical forces which are both endogenous and exogenous as well as dynamic. They will be place-specific, the specifics of the key elements which determine whether or not ecotourism is sustainable will vary from place to place. 

It has, hopefully, become obvious that the short answer to the question posed at the outset : 'is ecotourism to remote, quasi-natural regions sustainable ?' is 'not necessarily'. The long answer is that each case must be examined on its own merits : there is no universal template. It is necessary to take into account scale (it is not necessarily a case of 'big is bad and small is beautiful') and local circumstance. Each case needs to be examined for the key elements which constitute environmental responsibility; socio-cultural integrity; and economic viability.

The key elements of sustainable ecotourism

The specifics of these key elements are likely to be open to debate. The questions of what constitutes a reasonable standard and whether all, most or just some of the elements are essential qualifications for ecotourism, are also debateable issues (Bottrill and Pearce, 1995). Although a win-win scenario is the ideal outcome, where all interests gain and the result is fully sustainable, in reality there will often be conflicting interests: what is a win situation for one interest in a particular place at a specific point in time may be a loss for another.

Two examples of ecotourism to remote natural areas serve to illustrate this point.

The first is at Lao Pako ecotourism lodge in Lao PDR, where the financial outlay required to instal relatively environmentally benign solar panels, together with imported, maintenance-free heavy duty batteries, could have employed two locals for ten years to maintain a conventional generator system. The enterprise also did not envisage covering its costs for two years after the installation.

The second is that of the Chumbe Island Coral Park Project (CHICOP), Zanzibar. Here, substantial bureaucratic delays, coupled with the considerable logistical problems involved with innovative ecoarchitecture, caused initial cost estimates to quadruple. 

Cost recovery is thus a problem and the project is placed in the invidious position of having to market itself as an up-market location. As such, it faces 'unfair competition' from unmanaged nature destinations, where no management costs occur, and from donor-funded projects which effectively subsidise the tourists and tour operators, with little or no management costs being passed on (Reidmiller 1999). 

In both these cases the projects have strived for high standards of environmental integrity. In both instances, however, economic viability is questionable and, of course, at the end of the day this may well compromise ecotourism's sustainability as well as the contribution that it might make towards sustainable development in general. It is evident that, probably, too much is expected of ecotourism. It is not a magic cure-all for all the symptoms of unsustainable development. It is vital that a holistic approach is taken, recognising that as well as common interests there are likely to be conflicts. A better understanding of areas of potential discord, as well as concord, is essential so that the negative links can be broken, and the positive links built upon (World Bank, 1992; Cater, 1994). Only then will ecotourism begin to live up to the reputation of sustainability which goes before it. Humankind depends upon a healthy environment for sustainable livelihoods. The quality of these livelihoods is also increasingly dependent on leisure opportunities which allow us to appreciate, understand, and thus help to safeguard, the remarkable diversity of the natural environment.

 

References

Bottrill, C. G. et Pearce, D. G. (1995) Ecotourism : Towards a Key Elements Approach to Operationalising the Concept. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 3 (1), 45-54

Butler, R. (1998) Sustainable tourism - looking backwards in order to progress ? Dans Hall, C.M. et Lew, A.A. (eds) Sustainable Tourism : A Geographical Perspective. Longman, Harlow.

Cater, E. (1994) Introduction. Dans Cater, E. et Lowman, G. (eds) Ecotourism : A Sustainable Option ? Royal Geographical Society and John Wiley, Chichester.

Fennell, D.A. (1999) Ecotourism : An introduction. Routledge, Londres.

Gray, J. (1998a) SeaCanoe Thailand - Lessons and Observations. In Miller, M.L. et Auyong, J. Proceedings of the 1996 World Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism. Seattle : University of Washington and Oregon Sea Grant Program, Oregon State University, pp 139-144.

Gray (1998b) 2 Dec. 1998. Update on SeaCanoe Wars. Trinet (online). Available from caveman@seacanoe.com (Accessed 3 Dec 1998) Kok, Y.H. (1997) On top of the world at Paon Hill, New Straits Times, February 22 1997

Lindberg, K. (1991) Policies for Maximising Nature Tourism's Ecological and Economic Benefits, World Resources Institute, Washington DC

Lindberg, K. et Hawkins, D.E. (1993) Ecotourism : A Guide for Planners and Managers. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington.

Lindberg, K., Epler-Wood, M. et Engledrum, D. (1998) Ecotourism : A Guide for Planners and Managers Volume 2. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington.

Network Wizards (1999) Internet Domain Survey (en ligne). Internet Software Consortium. Available from : http//www. isc.org/dsview .cgi?domainsurvey/WWW-9907/report.html (Accessed 6 Oct. 1999)

Reidmiller, S. (1999) The Chumbe Island Coral Park Project. Unpublished document available from chumbe.island@raha.com

Sampat, P. (1999) Internet Use Grows Exponentially. Dans Brown, L. R., Renner, M. et Flavin, C. (eds) Vital Signs 1998-1999. Earthscan, Londres, pp.98-99

Weaver, D. (1998) Ecotourism in the Less Developed World. CABI, Wallingford.

World Bank (1992) World Development Report 1992. OUP, Oxford. World Bank (1999) World Development Report 1999. OUP, Oxford.