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Tourism and environment : the experience of the OECD Christian AVEROUS - Head of Division, Environment Directorate, OECD, Paris, France
The economic organisation, OECD, pays particular attention to the globalisation of exchanges and to sustainable development, which are additional preoccupations for the governments of its member countries. Work has for a long time been carried out on sustainable development and especially on the integration of environmental concerns in economic sectors such as energy, transport, agriculture, tourism* or in public policy concerning taxation, exchanges, and public aid to development.
*.OECD Council recommendation on "Environment and Tourism" dated 8 May 1979.To expand on this further we will here examine the tourist sector :
- its economic importance,
- its impact on the environment and,
- the integration of environmental concerns into the sector.
1. The economic importance of tourism
From an international viewpoint, this sector represents 10-20 % of goods and services exported from 9 OECD countries (Australia, New Zealand, Austria, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey) and 5-10 % for 9 other countries (including the United States, France, Italy and the United Kingdom within the G7) (Table 1 and Figure 1).
It also represents, internationally, 3-6 % of the GDP for New Zealand ; the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland; Austria, Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey. If tourism relative to residents in their own countries is also taken into account, the economic importance of this sector is even greater (Table 1 and Figure 1).
Globally, in terms of the number of international tourists, 9 OECD countries figure in the top 10 destinations. 9 OECD countries also figure in the top 10 in terms of tourist spending and in international tourist earnings. China is also ranked in the top ten countries in these three areas.
The trend is for tourism and travelling (national and international) to experience high growth. Over the period 1999-2010, this growth, a global average, may be around 3% per year in value terms. It will be higher in developing countries and around 2.5 % in OECD countries.
Some of the other characteristics of this sector in OECD countries are the concentration of tourism in the same place and at the same time, the trend for the reduction of the average length of stay and consequently an increased demand for trips.
Table 1. International tourism earnings
a Preliminary data. b 1998 : 1997 Data. c Belgium : UEBL. Source : WTO, OECD.
% of exports of goods and services
% of the GDP
-
1995
1996
1997
1998 (a)
CANADA
3.6
3.7
3.6
3.7
UNITED-STATES
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.2
MEXICO
7.1
6.5
6.2
6.0
AUSTRALIA
10.1
10.3
10.3
11.0
KOREA
3.7
3.5
3.1
3.5
JAPAN
0.7
0.9
1.0
1.0
NEW-ZELAND (b)
12.9
13.9
14.9
14.9
GERMANY
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.4
AUSTRIA
16.3
14.8
14.1
12.3
BELGIUM (c)
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.5
DENMARK
5.8
5.3
5.2
5.0
SPAIN
18.9
17.5
16.5
16.8
FINLAND
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.3
FRANCE
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.5
GREECE
22.2
18.9
20.0
21.0
HUNGARY
10.5
12.9
12.2
10.4
IRELAND
4.5
4.7
4.5
3.9
ICELAND
6.7
5.8
5.5
6.2
ITALY
10.1
9.6
10.0
9.7
LUXEMBOURG (c)
-
-
-
-
NORWAY
4.2
3.7
3.4
3.9
HOLLAND
3.1
2.9
3.2
2.7
POLAND
21.4
25.1
25.3
20.4
PORTUGAL
13.6
12.8
13.2
13.3
CZECH REPUBLIC
10.1
12.6
11.5
9.2
UNITED-KINGDOM
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.9
SWEDEN
3.7
3.6
3.8
4.1
SWITZERLAND
8.8
8.2
7.7
7.5
TURKEY
14.7
15.6
15.7
17.5
-
-
-
-
-
OECD Europe
6.9
6.8
6.8
6.6
OECD
6.2
6.2
6.1
6.1
1995
1996
1997
1998 (a)
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.8
2.1
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.8
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.9
4.1
4.2
4.2
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.4
1.9
1.9
2.2
1.9
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.7
4.5
4.4
4.7
5.0
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
3.5
3.0
3.1
3.3
3.9
5.0
5.7
5.4
3.5
3.7
3.8
3.4
2.4
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.5
2.3
2.5
2.5
100
-
-
-
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.5
1.8
1.5
5.5
6.2
6.4
5.4
4.2
4.0
4.2
4.4
5.7
6.7
6.6
5.9
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.7
1.8
3.1
3.0
3.1
3.0
2.9
3.3
3.7
4.3
-
-
-
-
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
2. The impact of tourism on the environment
Tourist activities have both a positive and a negative impact on the environment. This means minimising some and maximising others to ensure that the sustainable development of tourism depends directly on the quality of the environment.
Positive impact
Tourism has a considerable positive impact on the environment and on local sustainable development thanks to synergies relating to traditional activities (agriculture, fishing, crafts) in rural areas and those relating to urban development (urban amenities, architectural and cultural heritage, major events).
Tourism also encourages the protection and enhancement of the natural and cultural heritage. Athens, for example, has an active policy concerning the restoration of major cultural monuments that are being linked by pedestrian zones and green areas. The Olympic Games in 2004 is also encouraging the authorities to improve urban planning and the quality of the environment.
Finally, the search for the positive environmental image of tourist destinations (for example through the quality of its bathing water and the natural habitat) leads to a particular effort being made to protect the environment (reducing pollution and improving the management of nature and natural resources).
Environmental pressure
Tourism has an effect on land planning and transforms the landscape.
Its development has increased the concentration of populations in tourist zones such as coastal and island areas. This concentration has, in turn, increased the amount of unauthorised development around the tourist zones.
The fragile coastal or mountain ecosystems are sometimes upset or destroyed by the construction of tourist infrastructures.
Sometimes illegal constructions are even put up on the equally fragile littoral zones and the increased use of motor vehicles for leisure can destroy habitats.
Tourist activities produce quantities of waste during tourist periods. Waste disposal units are often unable to deal with this and the services are insufficient. It sometimes accumulates in unlawful dumps close to tourist zones, affecting landscapes and ecosystems.
Surface discharge resulting from tourist activities (e.g. fertilisers used on golf courses, residues from engine oils) aggravate the eutrophic environment and cause water pollution. Sewage from hotels and other tourist establishments leads to a considerable demand for treatment and sewage facilities ; when capacity is insufficient, sewage is left untreated which degrades the quality of water. Solid and liquid waste from cruise boats and yachts also contribute to the degradation of coastal waters. Major tourist destinations such as the Antalya region in Turkey, Crete, Cancun in Mexico and Cairns in Australia, were late in building the sewage and waste facilities required by the tourist establishments. This incapacity was partly rectified in the 1990's by the construction of sewage works and monitored dumps.
The high demand for water in the tourist sector can lead to an excessive pumping of underground water and in island or littoral zones and to the salinisation of underground supplies. Water consumption for tourist activities which is on average 450 litres per day and per tourist in the large hotels, is greatly superior to the average consumption of the local population and exerts pressure on the water resources. The popularity of golf courses and swimming pools is a major cause of high tourist consumption.
The demand for energy is also considerable. It is direct for tourist establishments and indirect for transport generated by tourist activity.
Aeroplanes, mopeds and hire cars, as well as cruise boats and coaches are sources of noise and atmospheric pollution. Therefore in Austria the use of motor boats has been prohibited on certain lakes. Tourist coaches can also contribute to traffic congestion, notably close to major monuments and tourist sites.
In France for example, objective for the littoral of leaving "a third untouched" remains ambitious. Planning is not always a reality, when for example, land rights are not always combined with clear property rights (such as in Greece, Iceland and Mexico).
Market integration
The tourist sector has a certain number of economic distortions that have an impact on the environment. Questions can also be asked about the impact that different rates of tax may cause :
- the lack of tax on kerosene seems for some people to be important exclusion in fuel taxes ;
- the taxation differences for car petrol at borders can lead to "petrol tourism".
- ax-free goods on international transport (aeroplanes, ferries) in some countries has an impact on the environment because of consumer/tourist movement.
On a more general level, the quality of the environment is one of the essential factors of tourism, and tourists often contribute only slightly or not at all to maintenance, operating and especially, investment costs. Entry prices for example into natural parks do not cover operating costs ; the cost of human habitation in isolated or marginal areas is essentially met by agricultural or environmental support measures ; the price of electricity on the Greek islands is subsidised by electricity consumers on the continent. Furthermore, tourist infrastructures are able to benefit from government aid even though they do not generate a positive cash flow. This questions the application of the polluter-payer principle (PPP) and the principle of the user-payer (PUP) in tourism. New measures are being undertaken in Ireland where tourists who come to fish in the lakes and rivers can, by buying a licence, contribute to efforts made to protect resources.
On a more general level, an improved application of the PPP and the PUP may avoid "subsidised competition".
3. Integration of environmental concerns in the tourist sector
Institutional integration
This integration may be carried out as part of the strategies for the sustainable development of the tourist sector itself or through more global strategies which include tourism. The number of such national strategies are increasing and often insist that tourism is more concerned by :
- an improved use of existing tourist infrastructures, particularly by spacing demand over a longer period and by using other destinations ;
- an improvement to the quality of tourist services and to the sector's consideration of the environmental ;
- an expansion of tourist products (eco-tourism, conference tourism, cultural tourism, rural tourism and thermal tourism).
On a local level, such strategies are combined with local Agenda 21 action which stresses medium-term development, partnership actions (national and local authorities, industrials and local associations) aiming for explicit objectives and systems providing public information (indicators and quality surveillance).
Such strategies should increasingly be transformed into investment programmes and budgets should improve. Studies looking into the impact on the environment associated with investment in major tourist projects and tourist and associated infrastructures (waste disposal, transport) play an increasingly important role.
The correct implementation of planning permission procedures, construction standards sometimes also pose problems such as quality standards (coastal water, beaches). The protection of natural areas is not always adhered to and even if it is making progress, urbanisation progresses at an even faster rate.
The tourist sector is to a large extent based on private, medium and small sized companies, which generate a great deal of employment.
The public sector role is also important. It regulates tourism, invests in public infrastructures, publishes information and often provides financial assistance for the redevelopment of private tourist infrastructures. The sector's private industry is able to play an active role in the protection of the environment by using codes of good conduct, encouraging the circulation of environmental information, increasing staff awareness of environmental concerns, promoting ecoaudits and commitment and being involved in the setting up of strategies for the sustainable development of tourism.
4. Conclusions
To conclude there are four major lines of action proposed by the organisers of this summit (on their web site) :
- protecting regions which have remained close to their natural state ;
- an ecological shaping up of existing tourist centres (rural or urban) ;
- providing ecological quality services by tourist service providers, including SME's ;
- improving tourist transport and travel management, together with the following concerns :
- economic in relation to the tourism/environment interface ;
- social in relation notably to health and employment ;
- information in relation to the environment, access to environmental information and involvement in the decision making processes.
